What did the “Roman Peace” mean in the Ancient world?  It meant two things.  Within the empire, it meant the determined effort to provide good government, reconcile different peoples with one another, suppress rebellions by ambitious men and malcontent groups, foster trade, and prevent invasions by barbarians.  At the outer edges of the empire and beyond, it meant frequent and destructive wars.[1]  Romans saw no contradiction here.  The two were inextricably linked.  Only in more recent times have people claimed to see hypocrisy. 

The dangers of internal disorder appeared in 69 AD, the “Year of the Four Emperors.”  Julius Caesar’s nephew, Augustus, had ended the Roman Civil War, established the Empire, and founded the Julio-Claudian dynasty that ruled Rome until 68 AD.[2]  In that year, Nero, the last of the Julio-Claudians, died.  Nero had no heir and his misrule already had inspired rebellion in the provinces and multiple conspiracies among officials in Rome itself. 

Notable among the rebels was Galba (3 BC-69 AD), governor of Hispania.  Although born to a wealthy and noble family, Galba had spent decades building a reputation for greed, abuse of those under his power, and social climbing.  Galba was old by Roman standards.  Nevertheless, he was proclaimed emperor by his legion.  He soon won the support of several other provincial governors, notably of Otho, the governor of Lusitania.  Then Nero died and Galba became emperor.  Quick as a snake, Galba turned on those who had helped him to power.  One was killed, but the more dangerous Otho (32-69 AD) merely suffered public humiliation. 

Otho didn’t take the snub very well.  Although only 37, he had already suffered enough public humiliation to choke a hog.  His wife, Poppaea, had only married him to get close to Nero.  Otho soon found himself divorced and exiled to a minor post in the provinces, while Poppaea married Nero.  Otho had Galba murdered to clear his own way to power.  “That’ll show her.” 

 Otho immediately confronted a rebellion led by the commanders of the legions in Germany,[3] who took their nominal commander–Vitellius (15-69 AD)—in tow.  Invading Italy, the army of Vitellius defeated the army of Otho, who then committed suicide.  Vitellius became emperor.  Like Otho, he faced a grave challenge from another general. 

This challenge came from Vespasian (9-79 AD), a man as ambitious as Galba, Otho, or Vitellius, but markedly more formidable as both a soldier and an administrator.  Vespasian left of repressing s Jewish rebellion, sent troops to Italy, while he took control of the Egyptian bread-basket of Rome.  Vitellius paid with his life in the war, while Vespasian ruled the empire for ten years and established the Flavian dynasty (69-96 AD). 

Vespasian shrewdly built his power upon competent administration, propaganda, increased tax revenues, rewards for his supporters, and non-lethal purges of his opponents.  In doing so, he re-established the “Roman Peace” as Romans understood the term.[4]    

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[1] Famously, the Roman historian Tacitus quoted a barbarian chief as saying that the Romans “create a devastation and call it peace.”  Well, yes, if you were an enemy of the Romans, that’s what they did.  They would do it to rebels inside the Empire as quickly as they did it to enemies outside the Empire. 

[2] If you don’t want to plow through Tacitus, then two historical novels by Robert Graves, I, Claudius (1934) and Claudius the God (1935) are a hoot.  If you find that daunting, then try the BBC’s televised version (1976: “I, Claudius” 1976 P1 Siân Phillips, BrianBlessed, MargaretTyzack, JohnHurt, JohnCastle, DerekJacobi – YouTube 

[3] Aulus Caecina Alienus – Wikipedia and Fabius Valens – Wikipedia

[4] All this is told with great skill in the first half of Tom Holland, Pax: War and Peace in Rome’s Golden Age (2023).